The Soviet Project 971 Shchuka-B ("Pike-B", NATO reporting name Akula) were fourth generation nuclear-powered attack submarines deployed from 1986 and arguably the last of the cold war. Given the way the program evolved and was hit by the fall of USSR, it was curtailed from the 20 initially planned, and evolved into four sub-classes, the original seven Project 971 (Later NATO Akula I) commissioned 1984-1990, six Project 971Is (Improved Akulas) 1991 and 2009, and the single Project 971U (Akula II) of 1995 and Project 971M (Akula III) in 2001. Naval Analyst Normal Polmar argued that in 1985 its existence caused a schock in the west, as western intel did not expected such class to be produced in such short timetable. They were also the most advanced Soviet SSNs ever built and remained potent in the new Russian Navy until 2001 when the first started to be retired. Today, the last four, modernized, are active and six more are undrgoing a radical modernization to ut them on par with the lastest Yasen/Laika class. Some confusion may about the name, "Akula" ('shark') come from the fact several projects, such as the Typhoon class (Project 941), used it as programme names. All variants remained under the generic name Shchuka-B both under Soviet and Russian service and NATO choosed the name not from its alphabetic code ("Alfa" was already taken), but from the lead boat, K-284, also named Akula in Soviet service as reported by intel. NATO still took these verious seriously. They might lack the titanium hull of the Sierra but they were undoubtely much better armed with the previous Victor III and while keeping their now trademark 533 and 650 mm tubes with an emphasis on sub-launched missiles such as the SSN-21 despite not being classed as SSGNs, and new generation of torpedoes, while also having a better sonar. But moreover, they were much more silent, to the point of catching up with the Los Angeles acoustic level, and arguably even the Seawolf class in some areas. Sierra II underway

Development of the Project 971

Despite its apparent attack submarine appearance, this submarine was intended primarily as an SS-N-21 platform. It therefore has only two 65cm TT (the other six tubes are 53cm, to fire SS-N-21s). Recent units have six horizontal bow external tubes above the pressure hull, providing additional missile or torpedo capacity. ‘Sierra’ was the corresponding attack submarine. However, the steel ‘Akula’ is far less expensive than the titanium ‘Sierra’, so it is being produced as a general-purpose submarine. The sonar suite matches that of a ‘Victor II’ (but with an improved flank array, Akula, extending a third the length of the hull), but the powerplant 1s new (it is probably the Arknka reactor plus fully-rafted machinery). The strategic mission required a communications buoy, which is carried in the streamlined after extension of the sail. The single reactor is the same type as in 'Sierra', 'Oscar', and 'Typhoon'. According to Russian sources, designed core life was 5 years, but ‘AKulas’ apparently steamed more high-speed hours than expected (they were used to trail US carrier battle groups) and actual lifetime was often as little as nwo and a half years. Because core production was planned for a five-year lifetime, cores had to be diverted from other classes, and ships laid up eg, four 'Oscars' on the Kola Peninsula in 1994. US cores are said to last at least 10-15 years. This design was developed by Firma Rubin (ex-sKB-18). Operating depth is reportedly 900m. The first two units tested SS-N-21 during the winter of 1987 8&8. In January 1992 the Russian Ministry of Defence announced that six submarines of this type were being broken up before completion. The decision to develop a new series of 3rd-generation multipurpose submarines dated from July 1976. The project was first designed by SKB-143 Malakhit. Until 1997, work was led by Chief Designer G. N. Chernyshev and after he passed out, by Yuri I. Farafontov. Technical specifications (TTZ) were the same as for Project 945 Barracuda (SIERRA), and on these premised, the Central Design Bureau Lazurit started working on the preliminary design. Unlike the Sierra class, no titanium but instead cheaper and easier to work with low-magnetic steel was to be use. This proposal was made by Komsomolsk-on-Amur shipyard based on hopes of better nuclear powerplant and refined hull shapes to make it for the speed that could be obtained with a Titanium hull. Its manufacturing cost was such it ended the Barracuda program to just four boats. The other main reason was a shortage high cost of titanium as well as the pain that was working with it. Sevmash was vocal about it, joined in this by Gorky yard, Krasnoye Sormovo. Plus they argued their capacity was whoelly insufficient for a large series in a relatively short time. Replacing titanium with steel made it possible to use the extra production availability of the Far East Yards and reached the timetable for 20 submarines. On September 13, 1977, the TTZ was approved, but as Soviet intel reported more data on the Los Angeles class submarines and its new hydroacoustic systems, the Shchuka-B program was delayed and entered into a deep revision. This is why the two program had a gap between them of the few years, wheeras initially the Sierra and Akula were planned to be delivered from 1982. The improved 971 project, marked as "B" was ready by 1980. The first serie would be attributed to Komsomolsk-on-Amur, and was accompanied by a rapid ride of investoments in production and technical potential for Far Eastern shipyards. In 1983 or 1984, the Soviet Union purchased new high-precision metal-cutting machines from Toshiba in Japan, allowing the use of new technologies notably to process a new generation of silent propellers, halving noise level. In 1983–1984 the Toshiba sale saw nine axis milling equipment with their associated computer control systems were developed by Kongsberg Vaapenfabrik. The deal remained secret within the company, as it would certainly embarrass the government, by then still in a close alliance with the US, but it was eventually leaked to the world press. U.S Navy officials and Congressmen raised this a serious issue for western acoustic superiority underwater and the press made it the "Toshiba–Kongsberg scandal". As a result, the US imposed economic sanctions against Toshiba, a massive exporter to the US (its first market). Project 971 submarine was soon known in the west and attributed the code name "Akula" by NATO. Later Project 971 was improved several times, and the boats under these modified projects were known as the "Improved Akula" both in Russia and in the West with "M" in Project 971M translated by NATO as the "Akula-II" class. K-335 "Gepard" was naturally called "Akula-III", despite the facct they remained single in class.

Construction

Severodvinsk:

K-284 (launched 1.7.84, completed 30.12.84), K-263 (1985), K-322 (1986), K-391 (1987), K-331 (1988), K-419 (1989), K-267 Drakon (launched 4.8.94, to complete 1995); two others under construction as of 1995 for completion 1996 and 1997.

Komsomolsk:

K-480 Bars (launched 1983, completed 1984), K-317 Pantera (launched May 1990, in service 1990), K-461 Volk’ (launched 11.6.91, completed 1991), K-328 Leopard (launched 6.10.92, completed 28.2.93), K-157 Tigr (launched 10.7.93, completed 1994), Rys’ (launched 1992, completed 1994), Vepr (laid down 1992, probably launched 1993) The name Yaguar has also been associated with this class, believed in 1995 for one of the Severodvinsk units. A total of 25 ships were planned for construction in the first draft of the program: 13 in Komsomolsk-on-Amur and 12 in Severodvinsk. In 1983-1993, 20 were instead laid down, of which 14 were completed, seven at each plant. Of these, 10 were long maintained in the Russian Navy. K-335 Gepard was the last commissioned on December 4, 2001. Rys and Kuguar, were not completed, and their hulls converted as Project 955 Borei class SSBN, K-535 Yuri Dolgoruky and K-550 Alexander Nevsky. K-152 Nerpa was only launched in 2006, originally intended for leasing to India, and with different equipment installed. As of May 2011, she was still as Bolshoy Kamen, Vostok shipyard and onl reached on April 4, 2012, Visakhapatnam base to be officially accepted into service with the Indian Navy, no longer as a leasing but definbitive acquisition. In the Pacific Fleet, formation of crews and completion was carried out with the 26th submarine division. Later the 45th division based in Krasheninnikov Bay (Vilyuchinsk) took charge of the process. In addition to the main crews, the 78th, 282nd, 622nd Project 971 submarine crews were formed as part of the division. After the disbandment of the 45th Submarine Division in 1998, all boats and crews in class were subordonated to the 10th division.

Design of the class

Hull and general design

Project 971 submarines were classic for their double-hull design. The pressure hull is made of high-quality alloy steel with a yield strength of 1 GPa (10,000 kgf/cm²). The hull design was in section for easier construction and transfer a significant amount of work from cramped conditions in the yard to other facilities, provided they could be brough b railed to the final assembly hangars. Even work in the module workshops could be split up in many sub-assemblies in other department. After installation was complete, each complete section was matched with others from the stern and bow sections, all main cables and piping connected to the main systems. This also could potentally facilitate later the inclusion on an extra section amidship, where the hull had a constant section. The machinery get special attention, as well as virtually all systems that could produce any noise on-board. The core was a two-stage shock absorption system in the powerplant, with all mechanisms placed on shock-absorbing foundations, and each module being itself "rafted" in the hull using rubber-cord pneumatic shock absorbers. In addition to further reducing overall noise, extra rubber was also added on the outer hull, which damped, and combined with the internal rafting, further reduced the impact of an underwater explosion on equipment and the crew. The aft section innovated also with a vertical tail unit ending with a a streamlined bulge containing a towed antenna, like for the Sierra and Victor III classes. The distinctive "bulb" or "can" on top of the Akula's rudder was for housing the towed sonar array when retracted. Most Akulas also also equipped with a wake detection system and SOKS hydrodynamic sensors, detecting changes in temperature and salinity, located on the leading edge of the sail, outer hull casing, but also in front of the sail and in the bottom of the hull forward of the sail. One novelty was the addition of two folding thrusters and retractable bow horizontal rudders with flaps to facilitate in-harbour or confined waters manoeuvers. Another special feature of project 971 is the smoothly mated connection of the tail unit with the hull, to reduce hydrodynamic turbulence and further negate noise emerging from the tail. It was estimated this noise level at 4-8 knots was down to 90-110 dB at 1 Pa at a distance of 1 meters. To compare, a later Batch Los Angeles revolves around 95 db, albeit real figures are very much classified. So, this made Akula more silent than the earlier Sturgeon class, still in service at the time.

Powerplant

The Akula was featuring of course a new generation nuclear power plant, of the PWR type, with the lead boat, K-284 Akula, having the last generation OK-650M.01 pressurized water nuclear reactor. On later orders, minor improvements were brought to the this model, with Russian sources reporting the OK-9VM reactors being used. Thermal power in all cases in 190 MW, for a shaft power of 50,000 hp. Two auxiliary electric motors were also added in folding outboard columns, 410 hp each for low speed panoeuvers, and there was the backup ASDG-1000 diesel generator.

Internal Improvements

Habitability was improved in later iteration within the class. Due to increased automation, the crew size was reduced from 96 (on the initial 671RTMK) to 73, including 33 officers. The entire crew is accommodated in the 2nd living compartment, in well laid and larger cabins than in previous boats. There were even limited recreational facilities (altlough not on the level of a Typhoon). In the remaining compartments, the personnel perform their official duties in better conditions as there was for once enough invodual berthing for eveyone, no longer shared bunks. The silencing improved all across the board and air conditioning, intensive noise-absorbing wall panelling, made for better conditions on board. Akula escape Pod

Armament

The Akulas, excluding Nerpa, are given four 533 mm torpedo tubes for the baseline Type 53 torpedoes, RPK-2, RPK-6 missile. The other part of a ywo rows arrangement (4 above, 4 below) are used four 650 mm torpedo tubes for the Type 65-67 heavy torpedo (nuclear compatible) and RPK-7 "Veter" with the ability to install a thermonuclear charge.. The external tubes are mounted outside the pressure hull in one row above the torpedo tubes and only could be reloaded in port or from a submarine tender out at sea. The 650 mm tubes can be fitted with liners in order to reduce the caliber and fire all 533mm-compatible ordance. The tubes were also designed to launch naval mines. In all, they carried more ordnance than all previous Soviet SSNs, 40, with twelve 650 mm and the remainder being 28 weapons of 533mm. INS Chakra (K-152 Nerpa) was unique, as she was leased to the Indian Navy in replacement of a Charlie II of the same name. It had covers above the 533 mm torpedo tubes and a different torpedo loading hatch. The 533 mm tubes were fitted with the Grinda torpedo preparation system to use the UGST deep-sea torpedo or USET-80 electric homing torpedo as well as the missile-launched APR-3M type, anti-submarine guided missiles PLRK-6 Vodopad, M5 Shkval underwater missile and S-10 Granat cruise missile with thermonuclear warhead, and today the Kalibr-PL. The mines carried could be both conventional and self-propelled mines. The Shchuka-B could bot hunt other other submarines or surface ships and even hit ground targets with its cruise missiles, making for a truly "multipurpose" platform as stated in the TTZ.

SET-65 torpedoes "Yenot-2" (1965)

533 mm Guided Electrical Torpedo with active acoustic guidance, homing range 880 yards (800 m). 3,836 lbs. (1,740 kg), 307 in (7.800 m), WH 452 lbs. (205 kg), RA 17,500 yards (16,000 m)/40 knots, Silver-zinc battery. SET 53-61 "Alligator": (1961) 533mm Acoustic wake following homing torpedo. WH 672 lbs. (305 kg) RA 16,400 yds (15,000 m)/55 kts or 24,000/35, Pw Kerosene-Hydrogen Peroxide Turbine. Replaced by the 53-61M early on (1970s) which had a homing system.

MGT-1

400 mm Passive acoustic homing torpedo (1961): 1,124 lbs. (510 kg), 177 in (4,500 m) WH 176 lbs. (80 kg), RA 6,600 yards/28 kts, Silver-zinc battery. First light-weight torpedo designed to provide submarines with a cheap self-defence weapons against other US subs. Service was short, however.

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The torpedo armament also included four 650 mm (26 in) torpedo tubes for super-heavy torpedoes or three types of encapsulated missiles:

SS-N-21 Sampson SLCM

SLCM, cruise missile launched by the 650 mm tubes. Army name RK-55 Relief, NATO reporting name SSC-X-4 'Slingshot' for the land-based variant, and S-10 Granat (NATO SS-N-21 'Sampson') for the naval version. Optional nuclear warhead, usable to destroy a US carrier battle group. Development started well before the Sierra were built, in 1975 by Novator, NPP Temp, Raduga MKB, KhAZ (Kharkiv), produced from 1976 and entering service from 1984. Fitted on all the subs sporting these 650mm tubes, namely the Akula class, Sierra I and Victor III, Yasen-class more recently. Mass 1,700 kg (3,750 lb), 809 cm (26 ft 7 in) x 51 cm (20.1 in) for a Wingspan of 310 cm (122 in). The Warhead is either Conventional or Nuclear, with a blast yield of 200kt. Engine: Solid-propellant rocket booster + R-95-300 or 36MT-37 turbofan 450 kgf for 720 km/h (447.4 mph) and 3,000 km (1,600 nmi), sea-skimming. It is guided by the Sprut inertial and TERCOM.

RPK-2 Vyuga (SS-N-15 Starfish)

ASW weapon Analogous to the SUBROC, with a thermonuclear 5-200 kt setup depth charge or torpedo. Launched from the 533 mm torpedo tubes, boosted by a solid fuel rocket and flying op to 45 kilometres (28 mi) away with a payload ranging from the simple depth charge to a 200 kt nuclear depth bomb. In alternative to the Type 40 it carries now the 82R torpedo or 90R nuclear depth charge. There is also a 650 mm version, like used also by the Sierra. They are shared by the Akula, Oscar, Typhoon, Delta, Kilo, and Borei classes and Sierra I/II. Warhead: 2445 kg, warhead or Type 40 torpedo (90 kg HE) Propellant: solid fuel rocket, range 35–45 km (22–28 mi) at Mach 0.9 Inertial guidance.

RPK-6 Vodopad (SS-N-16 Stallion)

The RPK-6 Vodopad ("waterfall") is a 533 mm launched anti-submarine missile deployed operationally since 1981. The 533 mm variant was carried, URPK-6 Vodopad-PL SSM/ASuM (83R, 84R). There is a 650 mm variant called the RPK-7 Veter ("wind") operational from 1984. Bot under the same SSN-16 Stallion NATO name. It seems the URPK-7 Veter SSM/ASuM (86R, 88R) was carried by this class. Up to twelve could be carried. The range of approximately 100 kilometers. A clear improvement over the RPK-2 Vyuga. It can carry a Nuclear depth charge or 400 mm torpedo.

Other weapons

-VA-111 Shkval rocket torpedoes -Strela-3 SAM (9M36), 12 in store, for close-in defence, surfaced. -There was also a minelaying configuration in which the torpedoes were landed and 42 mines carried instead.

Sensors

The sensor equipment was based on the Project 945 Barracuda/SIERRA and featured the following: -MGK-540 Skat-3 hydroacoustic system with digital signal processing, -Symphony-U navigation system, -Molniya-MC satellite radio communications system, -Radian radar system (MRKP-58 or MRKP-59), -Tsunami-BM space communications system, -Signal-3 periscope, -Lebed-11 or Lebed-21 periscope. -Wake detection station (SOKS) MNK-200-1 "Tukan" from K-322 onwards (except K-461, K-328 and K-152/Nerpa). -Guidance complex for the Granat cruise missiles. Starting with K-391 (except for K-152 Nerpa) all received launchers for the MG-104 Brosok hydroacoustic countermeasure system in the bow as an active protection.

Variants

Project modifications. From bottom to top: 971 before 1988, 971 after 1988, 971U, 971M "Leopard", "Tiger" and "Morzh" improved on acoustic stealth, as built. These were the "Improved Akula". "Vepr" and "Samara" (former "Dragon") under Project 971U, NATO "Akula-II" had a better profiled out hull, lengthened by a 3 meters module from 110.3 m to 113.3 m for extra electronic equipment and noise/vibration active suppression system close to the powerplant. The displacement increased from 8140/12,770 tons to 8470/13,390 tons and they are powered by the OK-650M PWR. Gepard, Rys and Kuguar were to be converted until budgetary constrains cancelled this program. In the end, only K-335 Gepard was further modernized (NATO "Akula-III"). K-152 "Nerpa" was completed under Project 971I "Irbis" specifically to be leased to the Indian Navy as Chakra. In short, many critical systems had been removed or made inaccessible. The 971I derived from the Akula-II and had "export" versions for all electronic equipments, also lacking the SOKS system and bow acoustic countermeasures launchers.

Project 971 (Akula I)

Basic version. All the above. Of the seven original Akulas, only three are in service. These are fitted with the MGK-540 Skat-3 sonar system (NATO Shark Gill). The lead boat of the class, K-284 Akula, was decommissioned in 2001, in a cash-strapped Russian Navy. K-322 Kashalot and K-480 Bars are in reserve. K-480 Bars in 1998, dismantled from February 2010. Pantera was modernized and returned in service in January 2008. All boats remaining were retrofitted with the SOKS hydrodynamic sensors. All before K-391 Bratsk have reactor coolant scoops similar to those of the Typhoon class SSBNs which are long and tubular. Bratsk and latter boats have reactor coolant scoops similar to the Oscar IIs and also shared by the Typhoons for their similar OK-650 reactors.

Project 971 and 971I (Improved Akula I)

Six all thought to be in service, quieter than the original Akulas but sources diverged about their true numbers. It is assumed these comprised the K-328 Leopard, K-461 Volk, K-154 Tigr, K-419 Kuzbass, K-295 Samara and K-152 Nerpa (the latter 971I for India, modified as export version). They are much quieter than early Akula-class notably with the SOKS hydrodynamic sensors (except Leopard).

Project 971U (Akula II)

Single in class, K-157 Vepr, only completed Akula II, 3 metres (9.8 ft) longer, 700 tons more submerged with space was used for additional quieting measures. She became quieter than the improved Los Angeles class (SSN 751 onwards). Two were used to build the newt Borei-class SSBNs.

Project 971M (Akula III)

K-335 Gepard is the 14th in class, only completed Akula III and first commissioned after the Kursk disaster. Her commissioning ceremony was a major event to boost the Russian Navy's morale and had President Vladimir Putin in attendance. NATO classification Akula III states a longer, heavier model with an enlarged sail, different towed-array dispenser on the vertical fin and still extra noise reduction methods. Many of its innovations went into the Borei class.

2014 Program Upgrades

In 2014, a major modernization was planned to make them compatible with the new Kalibr missile system, combined with service life extensions. In total, six were planned under the program, four of at Zvezdochka: K-328 Leopard, K-461 Volk for the Northern Fleet, K-391 Bratsk and K-295 Samara for the Pacific Fleet. K-154 Tigr (Northern Fleet) at Nerpa shipyard, K-157 Vepr being the first completing its modernization at Nerpa, recommissioned on August 5, 2020.

⚙ Akula Pr.971 specifications
Displacement	8,140 tons surfaced, 12,770 tons submerged (Akula I)
Displacement	8,450–8,470 tons surfaced, 13,400–13,800 tons (Akula II/III)
Dimensions	110.3 x 13.6 x 9.7 m (362 ft x 45 x 32 ft) Akula I
Dimensions	113.3 m (372 ft) for Akula II and Akula III
Propulsion	190 MW OK-650B/OK-650M PWR, OK-7 steam turbine 43,000 hp (32 MW), see notes
Speed	10 knots surfaced, 28–35 knots submerged
Range	Unlimited (less food)
Armament	4x 650mm TT (12), 4x 533mm TT (28), see notes
Sensors	MRKP-58 Radian radar, MGK-500 Skat-KS sonar, MG-519M Arfa-M, MG-512 Vint-M sonars, MRP-21 ECM, MG-74 Korund-2 decoys, MVU-132 Omnibus-5 CCS
Test depth	480m (1,575 ft), 600 m (2,000 ft) max
Crew	73-96, see noted

The Akula class: Career

Reception

The lead Shchuka-B, K-284, entered service with the Pacific Fleet of the USSR Navy in 1984. Already during sea trials, measurements showed that the new submarine had a noise level approximately 4 times lower than the Project 671RTMK Shchuka submarines. Initially, the Shchuka-Bs carried only tactical numbers, but on October 10, 1990, the Commander-in-Chief of the USSR Navy V. N. Chernavin, supporting the initiative of the K-317 crew, issued a decree naming this submarine Panther in honor of the submarine that opened the combat account of Soviet submariners in 1919. Subsequently, all the boats received their own names, echoing the names of pre-revolutionary Russian submarines. The "Shchuka-B" submarines produced at Sevmash were named after the "Bars" class submarines, which were the most successful and numerous series of Russian submarines of the early 20th century. For these names, Project 971 was nicknamed the "cat series" in the navy. In 1991, drafts of the Project 971 were submitted to the US Congress, which proposed to demand that Russia made public its long-term programs in the field of submarine shipbuilding, establish agreed limits for Russia and the US in the composition of their multi-purpose nuclear submarines and to provide assistance to Russia in the conversion of shipyards building nuclear submarines to produce non-military vessels. Of course, none went to pass. The difficult economic situation in Russia post-USSR made these concerns moot anyway. The international environmental organization Greenpeace was very active as well, pointing out radiation safety in the northern seas. Financial difficulties were announced for the program, which decreased Greenpeace's activities in this area. US naval analyst N. Polmar still testified at a congressional hearing the following in 1997:

There were ominous signs that the Soviets had made progress in submarine noise reduction. The Soviet Akula-class submarines that went to sea in the mid-1980s were much quieter than predicted. The Improved Akula-class nuclear submarines that went to sea in the 1990s soon showed that the Soviets had outdone the U.S. Navy in some aspects of acoustic camouflage — the Improved Akulas were quieter than our newest Improved Los Angeles-class attack submarines.

In the same speech, Polmar quoted CNO Admiral Jeremy Michael Boorda:

For the first time since we launched the Nautilus, we have a situation where the Russians have submarines at sea that are quieter than ours. As you know, for submarines, quietness is the most important quality.

Incidents

The Akula would soon showed their new abilities and confirm these initial concerns: Between December 1995 and February 1996, K-461 "Volk" (wolf) was deployed to the Mediterranean as part of the Admiral Kuznetsov Task Group, monitoring activities of several NATO submarines including of the Los Angeles-class, under Captain 1st rank S. V. Spravtsev. She was discovered while passing Gibraltar, but after some time contact was lost, and she was only rediscovered off the coast of Yugoslavia. Between April and June 1996, "Tigr" was deployed in the Atlantic and detected, shadowed an U.S. Ohio class SSBN underway to her combat patrol area. On 23 July 1996, commander, Captain 1st rank Alexey Burilichev, received the title of Hero of the Russian Federation. On November 8, 2008, during tests in the Sea of ​​Japan after an unauthorized activation of the fire extinguishing system on K-152 Nerpa, 20 died, 17 civilians and 3 military personnel. Another 21 were hospitalized. At the time there were 208 on board, of which 81 were military personnel. In August 2009, medias reported two Akula-class operating off the US East Coast and was reported as the first known Russian submarine deployment in this area since the end of the Cold War, raising concerns within the intel community. The Northern Command confirmed it. One was likely Gepard, in her June-September deployment under command of Captain 1st rank Alexey Vyacheslavovich Dmitrov. On 15 February 2012 he was awarded the title of Hero of the Russian Federation. The other was likely Tigr under command of Captain E. A. Petrov, deployed between March and November 2009. There was also the 2012 Gulf of Mexico deployment, when another Akula was reported there in August 2012, after being undetected for over a month, sparking controversy within U.S. military and political circles. U.S. Senator John Cornyn (Senate Armed Services Committee) demanding details from CNO Admiral Jonathan W. Greenert. Later it was likely commanded by Captain 1st rank Pavel Bulgakov which received the "Order of Courage" on the Defender of the Fatherland Day, 22 February 2013.

Current Status (to be updated)

All completed submarines except for three, were in service until the early 2000s, in the Northern and Pacific Fleets from Yagelnaya Bay (now Gadzhiyevo) and Rybachy for the Pacific Fleet. As of August 2020, out of ten, four were combat-ready, three in the Northern Fleet, one in the Pacific Fleet, the remaining six under long term modernization. The lead boat K-284 Akula, was laid up at the Pacific Fleet base in Pavlovsky Bay since at least 1996. K-480 Bars was decommissioned in 1998, in long term reserve at Yagelnaya Bay. In 2007, K-480 was towed to Zvezdochka for scrapping. Sevmash's unfinished K-337 Kuguar and K-333 Rys were recycled into Project 955 Borey class SSBNs. Two ended cancelled at an early stage. K-152 Nerpa was completed for India, with the deal signed on January 23, 2012 for $650 million, for a 10 years lease as "Chakra". Previously Indian submarines trained betwen 1988 and 1992 on a Charlie II. Among those trained, eight rose to the rank of admiral. The contract also planned the transfer as a hard sell of the fourth unfinished boat in Komsomolsk-on-Amur, which by 2002 was 42% complete. K-284 Akula was ordered as a project 971 at Amur Shipyard, laid down on 11 November 1983, launched on 27 June 1984 and completed on 30 December 1984. She was assigned to the Pacific Fleet. K-480 Ak Bars was a project 971 laid down at Sevmash on 22 February 1985, launched on 16 April 1988 and completed, commissioned on 29 December 1988. She was assigned to the Northern Fleet. Decommissioned in 2002, scrapping began in 2010 but the hull section was used in the construction of ballistic missile submarine Vladimir Monomakh. K-263 Barnaul was a project 971 laid down at Amur Shipyard on 9 May 1985, launched on 28 May 1986 and completed on 30 December 1987. She was assigned to the Pacific Fleet. Decommissioned in 2011 K-322 Kashalot was a project 971 laid down at Amur Shipyard on 5 September 1986, launched on 18 July 1987 and commissioned on 30 December 1988, assigned to the Pacific Fleet. She was decommissioned on 9 October 2019. K-317 Pantera is a project 971 laid down at Sevmash on 6 November 1986, launched on 21 May 1990 and commissioned on 27 December 1990. She was assigned to the Northern Fleet. Active, overhaul and modernization completed in 2007. K-461 Volk was a project 971 laid down at Sevmash on 14 November 1987, launched on 11 June 1991 and commissioned on 29 December 1991. She was assigned to the Northern Fleet. Overhaul and modernization to completed in 2028 to resume service. K-391 Bratsk was a project 971 laid down at Amur Shipyard on 23 February 1988, launched on 14 April 1989 and commissioned on 29 December 1989. She was assigned to the Pacific Fleet. Decommissioned in 2022, and awaiting scrapping. K-328 Leopard was a project 971 laid down at Sevmash on 26 October 1988, launched on 28 June 1992 and completed on 30 December 1992. She was assigned to the Northern Fleet. Overhaul and modernization to finish in second half of 2021, projected as starting her post-refit sea trials in 2022, status unknown. K-154 Tigr was a project 971 from Sevmash, laid down on 10 September 1989, launched on 26 June 1993 and commissioned on 29 December 1993. Assigned to the Northern Fleet. Overhaul to complete in 2022. Status to come. K-331 Magadan was a project 971 ordered to Amur Shipyard, laid down on 28 December 1989, launched on 23 June 1990 and commissioned on 23 December 1990. She was assigned to the Pacific Fleet. In overhaul from July 2019 to 2022. Status to come. K-157 Vepr was the first Project 971U (improved) laid down at Sevmash on 13 July 1990, launched on 10 December 1994 and commissioned in 25 November 1995. Assigned to the Northern Fleet Active, overhaul and modernization completed in 2020. (K-unnamed) project 971M laid down in Amur Shipyard in 1990, never completed. Materials recycled. K-419 Kuzbass was a project 971 ordered from Amur Shipyard, laid down on 28 July 1991, launched on 18 May 1992 and completed on 31 December 1992. Assigned to the Pacific Fleet. Active, overhaul and modernization completed in 2015. K-335 Gepard was one of two project 971M ordered from Sevmash, laid down on 23 September 1991, launched on 17 September 1999 and commissioned on 5 December 2001. She was assigned to the Northern Fleet. Active, overhaul and modernization completed in 2015. (K-unnamed) second project 971M ordered from Amur Shipyard, laid down in 1991 but never completed. K-337 Kuguar was a second Project 971U ordered from Sevmash, laid down on 18 August 1992, never lanched nor completed. The hull was reused in the construction of the SSBn Yury Dolgorukiy. K-333 Rys was a project 971U ordered from Sevmash, laid down on 31 August 1993 but never completed. The hull section was used in the construction of the SSBn Alexander Nevsky. K-295 Samara was the last project 971, ordered from Amur Shipyard, laid down on 7 November 1993, launched on 5 August 1994 and commissioned on 17 July 1995. She was assigned to the Pacific Fleet. Modernization in completion by 2023. Status to come. K-152 Nerpa was the Chakra(ii), project 971I laid down at Amur Shipyard in 1993, launched on 26 July 2006 and commissioned on 28 December 2009. Active, leased to India from 2012 until 2022, returned in 2021 and proposed to decommission in 2023. Status unknown. K-519 Iribis was a second project 971I destined to India. She was laid down at Amur Shipyard in 1994 but construction was halted at 42% in 1996. May be completed and leased to India but status to confirm.

Comparative assessment

Project 971 in Russia is dubbed a "third generation submarine", whereas in the west it was assimilated to a 4th generation, taking in account the November, Victor, and Sierra. The Akula's main features of low noise levels and improved communications and detection systems and compared to the Victor II (for Russian the true 2nd gen. subs, the Victor III were already closer to a transitional 2nd-3nd gen), the Akula had a thrice better target detection range, lower time to determine target speed, four times lower noise levels, higher degree of automation to have a crew going from from 130 to 73 and much better live conditions. In 1990 the "Shchuka-B" surpassed all similar Soviet submarines in stealth and armament. Some western experts went to compare not even to the later flight of mproved Los Angeles, but directly to the Seawolf and Virginia. Admiral Jeremy M. Boorda, CNO for 1994-1996, noted the Akula when moving at a speed of 6-9 knots remained virtually indetectable and thus coined for them the "fourth-generation" level. In Russian service the "Cat Series" (they were nealry all named after predators) was the first class able to completely overcome NATO's Atlantic defence cornerstone, the SOSUS submarine detection system which previous created many problems for Soviet submariners. On February 29, 1996 in NATO exercises, one of the Russian submarines gathering intel contacted a nearby ship, asking for help and surfaced in the middle of the NATO's battle fleet, causing quite a stir. She was identified by British sailors as an Akula, leading to many photos being taken. Indeed she lack proper facilities to operate a sailor having an acute attack of appendicitis, taken to the HMS Glasgow, and from there, sent to an hospital by a Lynx. The British press covered this incident,The Times reported this demonstration of stealth. This became routine. By June-July 2012, again, one Akula remained undetected by the US Navy leading large exercizes in the Gulf of Mexico, for several weeks. The next Yasen class drew enormously from the Akula and tried to improve their assets across the board.

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Books

Darman, Peter, ed. (2004). 21 Century Submarines and Warships. Military Handbooks. Grange Books. Gardiner, Robert; Chumbley, Stephen; Budzbon, Przemysław, eds. (1995). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1947–1995. Breemer, Jan S. (1989). Soviet Submarines: Design, Development and Tactics. Coulsdon, Surrey: Jane's Information Group. Miller, David; Jordan, John (1987). Modern Submarine Warfare. New York: Military Press. Miller, David (1989). Modern Submarines. Combat Arms. New York: Prentice Hall Press. Polmar, Norman; Moore, Kenneth J. (2004). Cold War Submarines: The Design and Construction of U.S. and Soviet Submarines. Potomac Books. Polmar, Norman; Noot, Jurrien S. (1991). Submarines of the Russian and Soviet Navies, 1718-1990. NIP Hutchinson, Robert (2005). Jane's Submarines : War Beneath The Waves from 1776 to the Present Day (1st U.S. ed.). New York: Collins.

Links

russianships.info/ rusnavy.com/ deepstorm.ru k317.htm deepstorm.ru K-480.htm deepstorm.ru/ K-154.htm web.archive.org/ upi.com/T Reports-of-Russian-sub-in-gulf... archive.org/rusnavy.com web.archive.org rusnavy.com nowadays strength/ web.archive.org/ popularmechanics.com/ web.archive.org naval-technology.com akula/specs.html web.archive.org deepstorm.ru/ K-154.htm korabel.ru/ v_stroy v 2022 navalnews.com magadan-to-be-operational 2022/ tass.com/ en.wikipedia.org Akula-class_submarine www.upi.com/ Top_News Reports-of-Russian-sub-in-gulf ru.wikipedia.org/ Category:Akula_class vpk.name/ source submarine wolf with caliber return to the navy 2023

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